Felix,
(With apologies to T-U readers as this has become somewhat O/T but I hope it is still useful.)
The linux-image install may be failing as a result of a config file left over from a removed but not purged package or an obsolete config file resulting from a downgrade or failed upgrade.
Try the following (all on one line):
dpkg-query --show --showformat='${STATUS} ${PACKAGE} ${VERSION} ${ARCHITECTURE}\n' | grep 'deinstall ok config-files' | awk '{print $4}'
That should give you a list of packages to be purged. If it looks OK add a "dpkg --purge $(" on the front and a ")" on the end to purge them.
Then try the reinstall again. If it works great. If it fails please show me the result of:
grep 'obsolete$' /var/lib/dpkg/status
--Mike